Lesson Structure:    Animal Anatomy and Physiology (Animal Husbandry I)

There are 11 lessons:

1.  Introduction to cells & tissues

• Livestock classes
• Livestock products
• Interrelationship between crops and livestock
• Cells and tissues
• Special properties of cells
• Osmosis
• Nutrient waste

2.  The Digestive System

• Digestive system
• Mouth
• Tongue
• Teeth
• Oesophagus
• Simple stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Ruminant stomach
• Accessory organs of the digestive system
• Digestion, absorption and utilisation in the simple stomach
• Enzymes
• Breakdown by microorganisms
• Digestion, aborption and utilisation in the ruminant stomach
• Mechanical action
• Action of micro-organisms
• Utilisation of the end products of digestion

3.  The Circulatory System

• Circulatory system
• Composition of blood
• Functions of blood
• Clotting mechanism
• Immunity
• Blood vessels
• Arteries, veins, cappillaries
• Physiology of the circulatory system
• Rates of heart beats
• Spleen
• Lympathic system
• Circulatory networks

4.  The Urinary System

• Anatomy of the urinary system,
• Kidneysureter, bladder
• physiology of urinary system
• Excretion in different animals.

5.  The Nervous System

• Central and peripheral nervous system
• Main parts of the nervous system
• Nneurones, sensory neurones, motor neurones
• Central nervous system
• The brain
• Spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system
• Cranial nerves
• Spinal nerves
• Aautonomic nervous system
• Reflex actions
• Endocrine system
• Structure and function of the ear:Hearing
• Structure and function of the eye:The iris
• Structure and function of the nose.

6.  Respiration

• Anatomy of respiration
• Trachea
• Bronchial tree
• Lungs
• Physiology of respiration
• Gaseous exchange Rate and depth of breathing.

7.  The Reproductive System

• Anatomy of the male reproductive system: testes, accessory organs, penis, physiology of male reproductive system, hormone production, sperm production, erection, ejaculation, fertility problems in males, Venereal diseases
• Other diseases
• Injury,
• Physical immaturity Emotional immaturity
• Nnutrition
• Poor handling
• Anatomy of female reproductive system, ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, physiology of the female reproductive system, ovulation, oestrus cycle, fertility problems, difficulties conceiving,
• Venereal and other diseases
• Physical abnormalities
• Nutrition
• Inability to carry a foetus to full term
• Pregnancy and parturition
• Fertilisation
• Pregnancy
• Parturition
• Birth process
• Difficult births
• Structure of the mammary glands
• Secretion of milk
• Milk ejection
• Reproduction data for cows, sows and ewes.

8.  Muscles & Meat

• Muscles and meat
• Smooth muscle
• Striated voluntary muscle
• Cardiac muscleStructure of meat
• Dressing out percentage
• Composition of the beef animal
• Meat quality and tenderness
• Juiciness, flavour, cuts and joints of meat.

9.  The Skeleton

• Bones
• How bones are formed
• Anatomy of bones
• Fractures and fracture healing
• Five types of bone
• Joints of bone
• The skeleton
• Dentition
• The dental formula
• Cattle, dental formula of an ox and cow
• Eruption of permanent teeth
• Pigs

10.  Animal Growth, Development, and the Endocrine System

• Growth and development
• Growth curve
• Prenatal growth
• Post-natal growth
• Fat
• Factors which affect the size of newborns
• Factors affecting post-natal growth
• Early maturing
• Compensatory growth
• Endocrine system
• Pituitary gland
• Thyroid
• Parathyroid
• Thymus
• Adrenal bodies
• Pancreas
• Testes
• Ovaries
• Pineal body
• Mucous membrane of the stomach

11.  Comparing Different Animals

• Poultry
• Digestion
• Gullet
• Crop
• Proventriculus
• Gizzard
• Intestine
• Caecum
• Rectum
• Incubating eggs
• Natural incubation
• Symptoms of a broody hen
• Fish

Learning Goals:  Animal Husbandry I  (Animal Anatomy And Physiology)  BAG101

• Differentiate and describe the basic structure and function of cells and tissues of animals.
• Explain the digestive system, in terms of both structure and function, of animals.
• Explain the circulatory systems, in terms of both structure and function, of animals.
• Explain the urinary system, in terms of structure and function, of animals.
• Explain the nervous system, in terms of structure and function, of animals.
• Explain the respiratory system, in terms of structure and function, of animals.
• Explain the reproductive system, including structure and function, of animals.
• Explain the skeletal system, in terms of structure and function of animals.
• Explain the biological mechanisms underlying the growth and development of specified animal species.
• Explain the endocrine system, in terms of structure and function, of animals.
• Explain the muscular system, including the structure, function, and meat quality of animals.
• Explain the differences between various types of farm animals, in terms of structure and function.
• Explain the nature of animals in the primary production industry, with specific reference to your locality.

Practicals:

• Identify parts of an animal cell on an unlabelled diagram.
• Describe the major features of a living animal cell, including structure and function.
• Describe one example, of cell interaction in live animals.
• Describe the cell functions for three different types of cells in animals.
• Differentiate between the cellular composition, using illustrations, of animal tissues.
• Explain the functions of four different animal tissue types.
• Describe the processes of nutrient and waste exchange in animal cells.
• Label a diagram of the digestive system of three different animals.
• Describe the processes occurring in digestion, in each section of the digestive system.
• Compare the digestive systems of different farm animals.
• Describe the action of enzymes and micro-organisms in animal digestion.
• Explain the role of accessory organs, including: *the liver *the pancreas.
• Explain the components of blood in animals.
• Explain the biological functions of blood in animals.
• Label on unlabelled illustrations, the parts of the circulatory system in a chosen farm animal.
• Explain the structure of an artery by illustrating and labeling a diagram of its five layers.
• Distinguish the characteristics of the various types of blood vessels in animals.
• Explain the role of the lymphatic system in a specified farm animal.
• Dissect an animal heart, and identify the parts of the heart on a photograph or the dissection.
• Label on an unlabelled diagram, the parts of the urinary system of an animal.
• Explain the role of the urinary system farm animals, including comments on urinary malfunction.

The term anatomy refers to the science that deals with the form and structure of animals. Physiology deals with the study of functions of the animal body or any of its parts. A thorough knowledge of the structure of an animal imparts a lot of information about the various functions it is capable of performing. This course is intended to give an overview of both the anatomy and physiology of many animals. It can be used as an introductory course to further studies; to help you understand how to diagnose disease or determine if an animal has sustained an injury; to help understand the physical capabilities or limitations of particular species; to understand what happens in the nutrition and growth processes; and to assist you to get better performance from your animals.

BLOOD COMPOSITION

Blood is a connective tissue that transports substances throughout the body. The following components of blood can be identified:

Plasma

This is a straw coloured fluid containing 90% water and 10% solids. The solids are:

• Proteins: Serum albumin, Fibrinogen (concerned with blood clotting)
• Globulin (deals with disease immunity)
• Hormones

• Lipids or fats
• Cholesterol
• Enzymes

• Inorganic chemicals:   these are the ions of salts and acids, some of which are essential in cell metabolism and others which act as buffers, reducing strong acids and alkalis to weaker acids/alkalis and neutral salts.
• Nitrogenous compounds:   amino acids, urea, uric acid and ammonium salts.

Red Blood Cells

The red blood cells are called erythrocytes, and there are five million in a single millilitre of blood. They are dish-shaped discs (concave on either side) which specialise in transporting oxygen. Oxygen is bound to haemoglobin so it can be carried in the blood. Haemoglobin also gives blood its characteristic red colour. Red blood cells are produced in the marrow of bones and they have a life span of three to four months. After that they disintegrate and the pigments produced by their destruction are excreted in bile.

Blood Platelets

These are small irregular shaped fragments of protoplasm which are formed in the marrow of bones and which play an important role in the clotting of blood and the prevention of blood-loss from a wound. They do this by sticking to each other and to the walls of blood vessels at the place of an injury. Platelets also release a substance called serotonin, which causes the blood vessels in the area to constrict in order to produce a drop in blood pressure.

White Blood Cells

These are called leucocytes and there are between 4000 and 11000 per ml of blood. There are various types of leucocytes of different shapes and sizes. They play an extremely important part in the defence mechanism of the body. They can form barriers against disease and can also engulf harmful material such as bacteria. They play a role in the formation of antibodies and in the immunity mechanism of the body. They are formed in the bone marrow and in the lymph tissues, the spleen, the tonsils and lymph nodes.

THE FUNCTIONS OF THE BLOOD

The main functions of the blood are as follows:

1. Transport nutrients from the digestive tract to the body tissues and organs

2. Transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and to carry carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs

3. Carry waste products from the tissues to the kidneys

4. Transport hormones from the endocrine glands

5. Regulate the body temperature by transporting heat from the deeper organs in the body up to the surface at the skin

6. Maintain the water balance of the body

7. Maintain the pH (acidity/alkalinity) balance of the tissues and organs

8. Prevent too much blood loss by clotting factors

9. Provide immunity

Clotting Mechanism (coagulation)

When a blood vessel is injured, a substance called thromboplastin is released which is converted to active thrombin.

Thrombin reacts with fibrinogen in blood plasma, forming a substance called fibrin. Fibrin is in the form of fine, thread-like filaments which wrap around the red blood cells, the white blood cells and the platelets to form a clot which stops further bleeding.

Immunity

Immunity is the most important innate defence mechanism of the animal. It develops when the animal is exposed to the invasion of any foreign protein or protein-like substance. Such foreign proteins are known as antigens.

Once inside the body, antigens eventually end up in the bloodstream where they produce poisons called toxins. Bacteria have proteins on their surfaces and so act as antigens.

The presence of antigens in the blood stimulates the production of antibodies which kill the invading antigens and sometimes destroy the toxins they have produced.

These antibodies are very specific, i.e. they act only against one particular antigen so that each disease stimulates its own antibodies. This fact is used in such precautions as vaccinations and immunisation.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Growth is described as an increase in body weight. Development is described as a change in body proportions.

Four processes are involved in producing the final form of an adult animal and these are:

• Differentiation or the transformation of mother cells to different cell types. For example mother cells change to form the specialised cells of the brain, kidneys, liver, intestines etc. This process is irreversible – once these specialised organs have been formed the cells cannot change back to mother cells.

• Morphogenesis or the organisation of cells into tissues, the building of tissues into organs and the development of organs into the whole body.

• Growth is the sum total of the biological and chemical processes that start when the ovum is fertilised and end when the body attains a size and conformation that is characteristic of the species.

• Development is the co-ordination of the diverse processes which end in an adult with a form or appearance that is characteristic of the species. Development goes on for longer in higher species than in the less sophisticated animals.

Growth Curve
Although growth itself is a highly complex process, it is possible to draw up a graph for each type of animal showing the expected increase in body weight over time. Such a graph is called a growth curve.

Puberty, which is the onset of sexual activity, occurs at about 30% of body weight i.e. when the animal has done about one third of its growth. There are two phases of growth. Phase 1 is called the self-accelerating phase because it is during this time that growth is most rapid. Phase 2 is termed the self-inhibitory phase because the growth slows down and eventually stops altogether.

The point of inflexion occurs in Phase 1 and is the time of fastest growth within this already quick growing phase. It highlights the spurt of growth that occurs during puberty. It is an important point as it is used to compare the physiological age in different species.

PRE-NATAL GROWTH
Pre-natal growth refers to the growth of the foetus before it is born. It can be divided into three stages:

• Growth of the ovum

• Growth of the embryo

• Growth of the foetus

Growth of the Ovum
This stage lasts from the fertilisation of the egg to the start of cell differentiation and covers the first week or so after fertilisation. Little change takes place in the shape or weight of the ovum.

Growth of the Embryo
Cell differentiation begins in this phase and the major tissues and organs begin to develop. This phase lasts from about the 6th day to the 34th day to the 45th day in cattle.

Growth of the Foetus
This phase is characterised by a rapid increase in the weight of the foetus. The various tissues and organs begin to show marked differences in size and shape. This will occur from the 34th to the 104th day in sheep and from the 45th to the 282nd day in cattle.

The foetus steadily increases in weight from conception with a rapid increase occurring in the third and last phase of pregnancy. The growth of organs in the foetus follows the functional needs of the foetus.

Thus, the organs that are necessary in the early stages of life (during pregnancy and just after birth) develop first. These organs include the liver, heart, kidney, brain and spinal cord. Organs that are only needed for post natal life develop later. For example, the abomasum (stomach) is not needed until birth.

The head and shoulders develop before the abdominal area and the ends of the limbs develop further before the ends that are attached to the body. Nervous tissue develops before bone while bone develops before muscle.

POST-NATAL GROWTH
At birth, the young mammal has relatively large legs and head but a small body. The nervous tissues and organs are well developed. Bone tissue is more developed than muscle, which in turn is more developed than fat.

The organs continue to grow at different rates after birth (just as they did pre-natally). The most vital organs (brain, eyes, lungs, heart, kidneys, oesophagus, abomasum, and small intestine) are relatively well-developed at birth but have slower growth than such organs as the rectum and rumen which become functional with feeding.

The body regions also change in proportions in post-natal life. The body increases in depth in relation to length; this makes the head and legs appear to shorten. Body tissues continue to show differential growth after birth.

Bone growth precedes muscle which precedes fat. Major growth changes are complete in early post-natal life. The patterns of bone and muscle appear to follow the animal’s requirements (e.g. the long, strong legs at birth allow the young animal to run away from danger).

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Your learning experience with ADL will not only depend on the quality of the course but, also the quality of the person teaching it. This course is taught by Vicky Protopapadaki and your course fee includes unlimited tutorial support throughout. Here are Vicky’s credentials:

Vicky Protopapadaki

MSc (Distinction) Applied Animal Behaviour and Animal Welfare (University of Edinburgh), BSc Business Administration (University of the Aegean), Cert. Companion Animal Behaviour (University of Edinburgh ), Cert. Animal Use and Care (University of Prince Edward Island).

Vickys passion for animals led her to obtain her MSc in Applied Animal Behaviour and Animal Welfare, despite her having a background in business and management. Apart from her personal experience with animals, she volunteers at various animal shelters around Greece and has done research on feline behaviour at the University of Prince Edward Island in Canada and on primate behaviour at Edinburgh Zoo. She is currently researching PhD opportunities in the field of animal ethics and studying entrepreneurship for the purpose of creating her own charity for animal protection in Greece.

EBOOK TO COMPLIMENT THIS COURSE

Animal Health Ebook

A complete guide to caring for animals, designed for anyone involved in their day to day care, including farmers, pet owners and students.

Animal Health

By the Staff of ACS Distance Learning

Animal Health eBook course online.

Animal welfare and wellbeing has become increasingly important in recent times and is a major social issue in developed countries.

“For the past 10,000 years, people all over the world have domesticated animals for various purposes. Some animals such as dogs and cats were domesticated as pets to provide company to humans. Livestock animals such as cattle and sheep were kept to provide products such as meat, wool or milk, or kept as working animals. No matter what the reason, animals and humans have been connected over an extended period of time.

Optimum health is essential to the wellbeing and longevity of all animals. It is the responsibility animal owners to ensure the welfare of the animals within their care. As part of the general care of animals, we need to be able to identify diseases. The first step in recognising diseases in animals is to understand when an animal is unwell. This generally requires three things: information on the history of the animal, a physical examination and specialized testing to identify the cause of the illness.”

CONTENTS

Preface

Introduction

Understanding Animal Health Issues

Preventing Disease and Injury

Inspecting for Health

Differential Diagnosis

Some Common Illnesses in Animals

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

Here is a list of the most often asked FAQ’s.

General

Q. Why should I enrol with the Academy for Distance Learning?
A. Here at ADL, our students are our priority – we treat everyone as a unique individual.

Q. Do I need to buy text books?
A. No, as each module has been written by highly qualified industry professionals. The content of the material is presented in such a way that text books are not required. However, if you require additional reading your tutor will be able to supply a list.

Q. What happens if I have to stop studying for a while? (eg. become sick, go on holidays, have a baby, move house, etc)
A. It’s OK to take a break and start up your study at a later point in time. Just let us know.

Q. Is there an age limit?
A. There is no maximum age limit. We do however, have a minimum age limit of 18 years. Below that age parental consent would be required.

Q. Are your courses up-to date?
A. Our courses are revised and updated on a rotation system.

Q. Do you have a Cancellation policy?
A. Yes. We have a cancellation policy that is fair and equitable. For further details please click here.

Q. Will I have any opportunity to engage with other students?
A. We have a Student Community group based on facebook! If you don’t have a facebook account already, you could make one just for talking with fellow students on the group.

Enrolment

Q. When can I enrol/start?
A. You may enrol and start at any time of the year – it’s all self- paced.

Q. Can I study from anywhere in the world?
A. Our courses are available to anyone, anywhere in the world from the comfort of your own home. The course content is relevant to any country, culture or economy.

Q. How long do I have to complete the course?
A. You complete the course at any time that is convenient for you.

Q. Completing a 100 hour module – how long will it take?
A. For some students a 100 hour module will take approximately to 3- 6 months to complete. Others take less time and some even longer.

Assessment

Q. Assessment – how does it work?
A. For each 100 hour module you are assessed by assignments (at the end of each lesson) and a final one and a half hour exam (or you may elect to complete a Project, instead of sitting the exam) – the choice is yours – you sit for the exam in your own location.

Q. I don’t cope well with exams – what can I do?
A. You may elect to undertake a Project (set by your tutor) instead of sitting the exam. Projects are completed from your home and can usually take a couple of weeks to complete.

Q. If my assignment is not up to standard is there an opportunity to resubmit my work?
A. Yes –

Q. How many assignments do I need to complete for each module?
A. At the end of each lesson, there is an assignment – so if a course has say, 10 lessons, there would be 10 assignments.

Q. I am having difficulty attending workshops/industry meetings, what can be done?
A. If your course requires attendance at workshops, conferences, or industry meetings; alternative arrangements can be made in your country.

Qualifications

Q. What qualification will I receive?
A. For individual modules, you would be awarded a Certificate endorsed by TQUK (Training Qualifications, UK), providing you complete all assignments and the exam. If you just want to complete only the assignments and not sit for the exam or finish a Project, then a Letter of Achievement would be awarded. For more details on qualifications available please click here.

Q. Can I customize my diploma/higher qualification?
A. Not all educational institution’s certificates /diplomas meet everyone’s needs. The opportunity to Design Your Own Diploma at the Academy (subject to our approval) is an added bonus, not found at other colleges. You choose modules that you think will help you in achieving your goal.

Q. What do I get when I complete the course? Will I receive a transcript?
A. At the completion of all courses and providing all assignments and exam requirements have been met, you will receive your Award and a Transcript.

Tutors

Q. Our tutors – who are they?
A. We appoint Tutors and require that they must be currently active in their industry, with at least 5 years’ experience in their chosen profession.

Q. Can I contact my tutor at any time?
A. Yes – you have unlimited access to your tutor via email through our Online Classroom. You can always leave a message with ADL requesting your tutor to contact you. You decide on how much or how little contact you wish to have.

Q. Practical work – How is this done?
A. To find out more about this part of the course please visit the section on How Our Courses Work here.