Lesson Structure:  Herpetology BEN209

There are 9 lessons:

1. Introduction to Herpetology
   • Herpetology Defined
   • Introduction to Reptiles
   • Animal Taxonomy
   • Classification of Reptiles
   • Characteristics of Reptiles
   • Testudine Characteristics (Turtles)
   • Squamata Characteristics (Snakes and Lizards)
   • Rhynchocephalia Characteristics (Tuatara)
   • Classification of Amphibians
   • Amphibian Characteristics
   • Building Resources and Developing Networks
   • Terminology
2. Class Reptilia (Reptiles)
   • Reptile Classification
   • Water Conservation
   • Reproduction
   • Order Chelonia (Testudines); Turtles
   • Order Crocodilia; Crocodilians
   • Order Squamata
   • Scaled Reptiles; Lizards (Suborder Sauria) and Snakes (Suborder Serpentes)
3. Reptile Biology
   • Reptile Anatome
   • Skeleton
   • Scales and Skutes
   • Ectothermal Regulation
   • Coloration
   • Respiration and Metabolism
   • Food and Digestion
   • Senses
   • Locomotion
4. Class Amphibia (Amphibians)
   • Order Anura (Frogs and Toads)
   • Order Apoda (Caecilians)
   • Order Urodela (Salamanders and Newts)
5. Amphibian Biology
   • Amphibian Skeleton
   • Skin
   • Ectothermal Regulation
   • Colouration
   • Respiration and Metabolism
   • Branchial
   • Buccopharyngeal
   • Cutaneous
   • Pulmonic
   • Food and Digestion
   • Senses
   • Locomotion
   • Reproduction
6. Ecology of Reptiles
   • Species Richness
   • Constriction
   • Injected Venom
   • Inertia Feeding
   • Biting and Grasping
   • Suction Feeding
   • Reproductive Strategies
   • Viviparity
   • Oviparity
   • Nest Building
   • Habitat Use; Aquatic and Terrestrial
   • Basking
   • Hibernation
7. Ecology of Amphibians
   • Use of Habitat
   • Temperature Relationships
   • Feeding
   • Vocal Communication; Advertisement calls, Territorial calls, Release calls, Distress calls
   • Social Behaviour
   • Dealing with Predators
   • Reproduction and Parental Care
8. Conservation Issues
   • Habitat change
   • Edge Effects
   • Pollution; especially water pollution
   • Environmental Acidification (Acid Rain)
   • Pesticides
   • Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals
   • Spread of disease
   • Invasive Species
   • Climate Change
   • Spread of Disease
   • Disease in Wild Populations
   • Trade in Reptiles and Amphibians
   • Conservation
   • Conservation Genetics
   • Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals
9. Keeping Reptiles and Amphibians
   • Introduction
   • Legal Issues
   • Special conditions for Amphibians
   • Special Conditions for Reptiles
   • Preventing Spread of Disease from Reptiles to Humans
   • Housing
   • Reptile Captivity Problems
   • Reptile Feed and Feeding
   • Amphibians and Reptile Species that are in Captivity
   • Feeding Amphibians
   • General Care
   • Common Ailments in Reptiles and Amphibians
   • Parasitic Diseases
   • Fungal Diseases
   • Viral Diseases
   • Metabolic Bone Disease
   • Thiamine Deficiency 

Please Note:  At the end of each lesson, there is an assignment to complete and submit to your Tutor for grading and returned to you with any relevant suggestions, comments, and, if necessary, extra reading.

Learning Goals:  Herpetology BEN209

• Discuss the nature and scope of reptiles.
• Identify credible resources, and begin to develop networking with organisations and individuals involved with the study of reptiles around the world.
• Describe a range of different reptile species, including distinguishing characteristics, their needs (eg, environmental, food, etc), and behaviour.
• Identify and explain the anatomy and physiology of reptiles
• Discuss the nature and scope of amphibians
• Identify credible resources, and begin to develop networking with organisations and individuals involved with the study of amphibians around the world.
• Discuss the nature and scope of amphibians
• Identify credible resources, and begin to develop networking with organisations and individuals involved with the study of amphibians around the world.
• Describe the ecological requirements, reproduction, and life cycles of amphibians
• Describe the behaviour of a range of different amphibian species.
• Explain conservation issues that are impacting populations of reptiles and amphibians.
• Explain the management of reptiles and amphibians in captivity

REPTILE ANATOMY – RECOGNISE THEIR ANATOMICAL FEATURES!

The major anatomical feature that differentiates reptiles from other animals is their skin covering of scales or scutes. They are tetrapods, either having four limbs or descending from animals with four limbs.

SKELETON
A reptile skeleton shares the same general components of most other vertebrates: a bony skull, a column of vertebrae enclosing a spinal chord, and a framework of limbs.

Snakes do not have limbs as such; but they do have remnants of hind limbs, presumably from their ancestors.  Marine dwelling dinosaurs (eg. Ichthyocaurs) had significantly reduced limbs on the skeleton (to support a flipper for swimming rather than legs for walking).

• Reptile skulls are different to an amphibian skull in several ways:
• Reptiles do not have an otic notch (i.e. indentation at the back of the skull)
• Reptiles lack several small bones at the back of the top of the skull
• Reptile skulls are also different to mammal skulls in a number of ways, including:
• Reptiles have several bones in the lower jaw; but only one of these bones has teeth.
• Teeth of reptiles are all relatively unspecialised (unlike the diverse specialisation into molars, incisors etc, that is found in mammals). Lizards have conical or blade-like teeth.

SCALES AND SKUTES

All reptiles are covered by either scales or skutes.

• Snakes and most lizards are covered by scales
• Crocodilians, turtles and some lizards (Heloderma) are covered by skutes

Scales are made of Keratin. They can be plate like or tubercular in shape, and overlap each other (i.e. are imbricate). Scales are formed from the epidermis of the animal (lizards and snakes have scales).

A skute (also referred to as osteoderm) is a bony external plate that covers part or all of an animal’s body. Examples of a skute include the shell on a tortoise or turtle; and the skin of a crocodile or alligator.

Skutum (plural) can also be found on the feet of some birds, the tails of some mammals, and on parts of some insects. The skin of an Armadillo is also described sometimes as a skute.

Skutes are formed from a lower layer of the animal’s skin together with the epidermis. The epidermis is only the outer layer of the skute. In crocodilians and some lizards, the skutes fuse with elements of the skull to form a rigid skull cap.

Turtles have the unique carapace (shell) which is the fusion of the skutes and vertebrae with the ribs. The lower shell of the turtle is the fusion of the skutum and sternum.

All limbed reptiles with functioning digits have claws. The tips of these claws are covered by a keratinous sheath. The outermost layer is formed by rigid beta-keratin.

The upper and lower jaw sheaths of turtles are keratinous structures. These replace teeth to cut and crush food. Hatchling turtles, crocodilians and the tuatara are all born with an egg tooth (or caruncle) to assist with hatching.

Moulting or shedding of scales (also known as “ecdysis”) occurs in lizards and snakes.
Moulting removes old tissue, and at the same time can help remove parasites (eg. ticks) that may be attached.

Lizards generally shed their scales in flakes, but snakes generally shed their scales as one complete layer. All Lepidosaurs share the same sequence of epidermal growth and shedding. They have distinct resting and renewal stages for shedding and sloughing.

This cycle is repeated at regular intervals when food is of abundant supply. The renewal (growth/shedding) stage requires about 14 days. The resting phase can range from a few days to many months.

Many reptiles (especially the lepidosaurs) have many small, epidermal sense organs. These are usually minute, appearing as pits or projections. These organs are not shed during the renewal phase. These organs are believed to respond to tactile stimulation.

The sea snake has light-receptors on the tail which suggests a larger range of receptors on reptiles. Sensory organs on the skin are generally concentrated on the head of the animal, but can be widespread across all parts of the body.

ECTOTHERMAL REGULATION

Reptiles and amphibians are both ectotherms. They rely on external environmental factors to regulate their body temperature or thermal energy.

These animals can gain or lose energy through different pathways such as solar radiation, thermal (infrared radiation), convection, evaporation, conduction and metabolic heat production. By adjusting the flow through different pathways the animal can warm itself or cool down.

COLORATION

In general, reptiles have two types of colour manufacturing cells. These are melanophores and chromatophores. The melanophores are found throughout the basal layer of the epidermis (outer layer).

These send out pseudopodia that transfer melanin into the differentiating keratocytes during the renewal phase of shedding. Chromatophores are found in the outer portion of the dermis (below the epidermis).

These are absent in reptiles that are unable to change colour. The presence, density and distribution within each layer will vary between species and individuals within the same species.

Chromatophores enable animals to produce different colours and colour patterns

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