• Lesson Structure: Physiology II (Human) BSC111

  There are 9 lessons:

  1. Cellular Physiology
     • Menbrane transport
     • Simple passive transport
     • Facilitated passive transport
     • Active transport
     • Transcription, translation and post transcriptional modification
     • Cellular metabolism
     • Cellular energy production
     • Homeostasis
     • Homeostatic balance
     • Feedback system
     • Body temperature
     • Effect of temperature on enzymes
     • Adenosine triphosphate
     • Glycolysis
  2. Histophysiology
     • Muscle fibre: filament types
     • Muscle tissue
     • Spongy bone
     • Compact bone
     • Bone physiology
     • Bone tissue
     • Cartlidge
     • Dense connective tissue
     • Connective tissue
     • Epithelial tissue
     • Physiology of tissue
     • Nervous tissue
  3. Systems Physiology
     • Central and peripheral nervous systems
     • Somatic and autonomic nervous systems
     • Sensory, motor and integrated systems
     • General senses
     • The process of sensation
     • Special senses
     • Autonomic nervous system
     • Autonomic reflexes
     • Parasympathetic nervous system
     • Sympathetic nervous system
  4. Neurophysiology
     • Structure of the nervous system
     • Parts of a neuron
     • Classification of different neurons
     • Neuron function
     • Action potentials
     • Graded potentials
     • Synapses: electrical, chemical
     • Neurotransmitters
     • Neural circuits
     • Different functions of the brain
     • Homeostatic reflex arc
     • Spinal chord and spinal nerves
  5. Endocrinology
     • Functions of endocrine system
     • Actions of hormones
     • Hormone target cells
     • Anterior pituitary gland hormones
     • Actions of posterior pituitary
     • Actions of adrenal gland: cortex and medula
     • Pancreatic hormones
     • Thyroid gland
     • Parathyroid
     • Adrenal glands
     • Pancreas
     • Hormone receptors
  6. Cardiovascular Physiology
     • Heart function
     • Cardiac cycle
     • Heart muscle cell contraction
     • Blood vessels
     • Blood: regulation, erthrocyte physiology, leucocytes
     • Hemostasis
     • Lymphatic system
     • Blood flow
     • Gas transport
     • Arterial alveolar gradient
     • Oxygen transport
     • Factors affecting oxygen release by haemoglobin
  7. Immunology
     • Immune system structure
     • Lymphatic organs and tissues
     • Types of resistance
     • Non specific cellular and chemical defences: phagocytes, natural killer cells
     • The inflammatory response
     • Specific defence mechanisms
     • Humoral immunity
     • Antibodies
     • Antigens
  8. Respiratory Physiology
     • Respiratory epithelium
     • The lungs
     • Airway anatomy
     • Alveoli
     • Nasal and oral cavities
     • Larynx, trachea, bronchial tree
     • Function of respiratory system
     • Pulmonary ventilation
     • Lung volumes and capacity
  9. Renal Physiology
     • Urinary system
     • Blood and nerve supply
     • NephronsKidney functions
     • Remal processes
     • Glomerular filtration
     • Electrolyte and Acid base balance
     • Tubular reabsorption
     • Tubular secretion
     • Ureters
     • Urinary bladder
     • Urethra
     • Micturition proces

Learning Goals

• Describe and understand the microscopic anatomical features of human cells
• Review basic structure and form markings of the body and be able to name them.
• Describe the significant systems and the structure of those systems of the body
• Integumentary, Nervous, Cardiovascular and Renal Systems.
• Describe the significant systems and the structure of those systems of the body.
• Endocrine, Immune and Reproductive Systems.
• Describe the significant structures in specific compartments or parts of the body – body cavities.
• Investigate the anatomy of the extremities – the arms and legs. This includes the bone, musculature and nervous tissue of the regions.
• Describe the study of the structure of the body and the application of various forms of medical imaging.

Practicals:

• Cell Physiology – Study of the functions of cells
  • Chemical reactions
  • Homeostasis, feedback systems, homeostatic imbalances
• Histophysiology – Study of the functions of tissues
  •  Bone – ossification, growth,
• Negative feedback regulation of blood calcium
• Articulation
• Systems Physiology – Study of the operation of organ systems
  •  Integumentary
• Skin – physiology, homeostasis, and body temp
  • Sensory, Motor, and integrative systems
• Sensations and sensory pathways
• Memory, wakefulness, and sleep
• Special senses
• Smell, taste, vision, hearing, and equilibrium
  •  ANS
• Dual innervation and neurotransmitters
• Parasympathetic/sympathetic
• Neurophysiology – Study of the functional characteristics of nerve cells
  • Myelination
  • Resting membrane potential, ion channels, repolarizatoin, impulse propagation
  • Spinal Cord
• Sensory/Motor
• Grey/White matter
• Reflexes, reflex arcs, and homeostasis
• Spinal nerves
  •  Brain
• Limbic system
• Functions of cerebral cortex
• Neurotransmitters
• Endocrinology – Study of hormones and how they control body functions
  •   Mechanisms of homeostatic action
  • Glucocorticoid secreation (NE and E)
• General Adaptation Syndrome
• Cardiovascular Physiology – Study of the heart and blood vessels
  • Heart Blood Supply – Coronary arteries
  • Cardiac Muscle Contraction – EKG
  • Cardiac Output
  • Hemodynamics – volume, BP, Capillary exchange
• Immunology – Study of the body defence mechanisms
  • Functions of White Blood Cells
  • Non specific resistance to disease immunity
• Respiratory Physiology – Study the functions of the air passageways and lungs
  • Pulmonary Ventilation – pulmonary capacity
• Renal Physiology
  • Study of the function of the kidneys. An advanced course on human physiology that will develop further your understanding of the principles of physiology, examining functions of the cells, tissues and systems of the human body. The course details how our bodies maintain internal equilibrium and health while exposed to the most variable range of conditions, such as physical, psychological and environmental factors.

Your learning experience with ADL will not only depend on the quality of the course, but also the quality of the person teaching it. This course is taught by Iona Lister and your course fee includes unlimited tutorial support throughout. Here are Iona’s credentials:

Iona Lister
Licentiate, Speech and Language Therapy, UK, Diploma in Advanced Counselling Skills.

Iona has been a clinician and manager of health services for fifteen years, and a trainer for UK-based medical charities, focusing on psychosocial issues, mental health disorders, and also the promotion of communication skills for people in helping roles. She tutors and facilitates groups via workshops and teleconferences, and now specialises in Sight Loss. As a freelance writer, she contributes regular feature articles for magazines, has written five published books, as well as published courses relating to personal development and counselling skills.

Iona has also written published books, courses and articles across a wide range of subjects, mostly in the areas of health, counselling, psychology, crafts and wildlife.

She has drawn experience from clinical and managerial experience within the NHS as well as medical and humanitarian subjects. She has been a regular feature writer and expert panel member of a national magazine for six years.

Books include: A Guide to Living with Alzheimer’s Disease (and associated dementias), The Psychology of Facial Disfigurement; a Guide for Health and Social Care Professionals, When a Medical Skin Condition Affects the Way you Look; A Guide to Managing Your Future, Facing Disfigurement with Confidence, Cross Stitch: A Guide to Creativity and Success for Beginners.
Courses written include: Mental Health and Social Work, Counselling Skills, Understanding and Responding to Substance Misuse, Journalling for Personal Development, Guided Imagery, Stress Management.

Current work includes: Tutor: Courses associated with Creative Writing, Counselling Skills, Psychology, Holistic Therapy, Certified Hypnotherapist and Hypnotension Practitioner.

Facilitator of Teleconference Groups: Royal National Institute of Blind People (RNIB)

Trainer (Skills for Seeing): Macular Society

Reviewer of Books/Information: Macmillan Cancer Support

Fundraiser: Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB), Embroidery/Art Groups Facilitator, Board Member

Website Manager: The Strathcarron Project, Coordinator (Delaware & Tennessee) Human Writes

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

Due to our years of experience and wide range of online courses, here are a list of our FAQs and Answers asked by Students.

General

Q. Do I need to buy text books?
A. No, you are not required to purchase expensive text books for any of our courses, since each module has been written by highly qualified tutors and writers, and our courses are updated on a regular basis, adding new information, methods and knowledge. You are supplied with all “essential” references. Extra books are always useful though, especially for special projects. Tutors will advise you what to buy if you decide you would like to have extra reading material, but it is not essential. Check out our eBookstore if you’re looking for a starting point.

Q. What sets the Academy apart from other institutions?
A.  A unique feature of our courses is that we combine knowledge of the subject matter with practical tasks (set tasks, found at the end of each lesson).  So you get to do practical components in each lesson. The benefits of this approach are immense: – your skills and knowledge are developed to a much higher level not normally found at other distance learning institutions.

Q. How do the practical exercises (set tasks) work?
A. The practical component of each lesson can be in the form of : Field Research, Networking and Analysis, Conducting Surveys, Growing, Collecting, Photographing and Processes.

Q. If I do a shorter course first, can I get credits towards a certificate or diploma later?
A. Yes. We will assess previous studies to give you appropriate credits.

Q. Can I pay by instalments?
A. Yes, you can view all available payment options here.

Q. Do I get a discount if two of us enrol together?
A. Yes. You may claim a 5% discount on fees if you both enrol in courses at the same time.

Q. Do I get a discount if I enrol in a second course?
A. Yes. You will be offered a 10% discount on subsequent courses you enrol for.

Q. Can I use more than one discount code when enrolling for my course?
A. No. You can only use one discount code chosen by yourself per course, when more than one is available.

Q. What happens if I have to stop studying for a while? (eg. become sick, go on holidays, have a baby)
A. It’s OK to take a break and start up your study at a later point in time. Just let us know.

Q. Is there an age limit?
A. There is no maximum age limit. We do however; have a minimum age limit of 18 years. Below that age parental consent would be required.

Q. Are there any hidden costs?
A. There are no hidden extras – the tuition fee covers all course material, unlimited tutor support, assignment marking/feedback and any text books where specified and exams. The only extras are for the public examinations fees for the ICB Bookkeeping course and the RHS (Royal Horticulture Society) exams.

Q. Are your courses up-to date?
A. Our courses are continually updated. The course content is rapidly updated and improved without the red tape and bureaucracy experienced at other educational institutions.

Q. Do you have a Cancellation policy?
A. We have a cancellation policy that is fair and equitable. For further details please click here.

Q. What Recognition do you have?
A. The Academy for Distance Learning has various forms of recognition:
These include TQUK (Training Qualifications UK) – an Ofqual Awarding Organisation – ADL is an approved TQUK Centre.
IARC – International Approval Registration Centre, approved member.  Accredited Training Provider for ICB (Institute of Certified Bookkeepers) and Approved Distance Learning Provider for the RHS (Royal Horticultural Society) and many more. Our graduates come from many parts of the world and have used our qualifications for successful employment and progression onto higher education. To view our full list  of recognition and memberships please click here,

Q. Will I have any opportunity to engage with other students?
A. We have a Student Community group based on facebook! If you don’t have a facebook account already, you could make one just for talking with fellow students on the group.

Q. Why should I enrol with the Academy for Distance Learning?
A. Here at the Academy our students are our priority – we treat every student as a unique individual. This philosophy allows us to nurture those who are “slow and steady” learners rather than letting them fall through the cracks, while catering for those who are in a hurry to complete.

Enrolment

Q. When can I enrol/start?
A. You may enrol and start at any time of the year – it’s all self- paced.

Q. Can I study from anywhere in the world?
A. Our courses are available to anyone, anywhere in the world from the comfort of your own home. The course content is relevant to any country, culture or economy.

Q. How long do I have to complete the course?
A. You complete the course at any time that is convenient for you. You’re under no pressure to finish by a certain deadline.

Q. Completing the course- how long will it take?
A. Completion of  modules varies from student to student.  Many factors come into play  such as work commitments and family life- there are always distractions.  Some students work quicker than others.  For a 100 hour module many students will take up to 3- 6 months,  others take less time and some are even longer. It’s all up to you.  There is no pressure to complete or deadline to finish. Naturally, longer courses will take more time.

Q. What learning formats are there?
A.  Your enrollment comes with the Online Classroom study option by default. For a small additional cost you also have the options of USB or Correspondence.
USB: Your course is sent to you on a USB stick, so that you can carry it in your pocket. Ideal for those with unreliable internet connections. This option is an additional £5/module

Correspondence:  You download the course content and then print your own copy to your requirements. You can then bind the lessons to suit your needs.

Assessments

Q. Assessment – how does it work?
A. For each 100 hour module you are assessed by assignments (at the end of each lesson) and a final one and a half hour exam (or you may elect to complete a project instead of sitting the exam) – the choice is yours – you sit for the exam in your own location, or you can visit us in Canterbury, England to sit the exam if want to.  Exam fees are included in the tuition fee you paid. You can read more about the examination process here. At the end of each lesson, there is an assignment. You submit it to the academy who then submits it to the tutor for marking, comments and feedback. Our policy is to have a grade for you within 5 to 7 days.

Q. If my assignment is not up to standard is there an opportunity to resubmit my work?
A. Yes – If you’re not happy with your work submitted you may re-submit the assignment again.

Q. How many assignments do I need to complete for each module?
A. At the end of each lesson, there is an assignment – so if a course has say, 10 lessons there would be 10 assignments. The number of lessons per module varies from module to module. See the course content from our website for further details.

Q. When do I have to hand in my first assignment?
A. There is no deadline for handing in the first assignment. Submit when you are ready. There are some students who hand in assignments within the first couple of weeks of enrolment – while there are others who submit their work 6 months later. It’s all at your own convenience to suit you. Everyone has different work and home commitments and we cater to these needs.

Q. I am having difficulty attending workshops/industry meetings, what can be done?
A. If your course requires attendance at workshops, conferences, or industry meetings; alternative arrangements can be made in your country; however, there may be an additional expense. We can appoint an appropriately qualified person anywhere to work through curriculum documentation supplied by us, to satisfy the requirements set down in a course.

Qualifications

Q. What qualification will I receive?
A. For individual modules, you would receive a Certificate (providing you complete all assignments and the exam). If you just want to complete the assignments only, then a Letter of Achievement would be awarded. For more details on qualifications awarded please click here.

Q. Is there a next level to progress to?
A. Yes – you can progress from one module to a combination of many modules and to higher qualifications i.e. Advanced Certificates, Diplomas and Higher Advanced Diplomas. Read more about course levels here.

Q. Can I customize my diploma/higher qualification?
A. Not all educational institution’s certificates /diplomas meet everyone’s needs. The opportunity to design your own diploma at the Academy (subject to our approval) is an added bonus, not found at other colleges. It’s a very popular option and widely used by many students. You quite simply choose the appropriate number of related modules needed to complete the qualification and submit them to us for approval as a custom diploma.

Q.  What do I get when I complete the course? Will I receive a transcript?
A. At the completion of a 100-hour Certificate course and providing all assignments and exam have been completed, you will receive a Certificate and Transcript.  The Transcript will list your GPA.  Each 100-hour module is worth 3 credit hours.

Exams

Q. Do I have to sit for an exam?
A. Exams are optional but need to be undertaken in order to receive the Certificate or higher qualification.  Exams are one and a half hours long. You appoint an adjudicator (subject to our approval) to supervise the exam. You sit for the exam in your own location. Its that simple.

Q. I don’t cope well with exams – what can I do?
A. If you feel you don’t cope well with exams you may elect to undertake a Project (set by the tutor) instead of sitting the exam.  Many students prefer this option as they find researching the material for the project sharpens their research skills.

Q. If I don’t sit for the Exam do I still get a qualification?
A. If you don’t sit for the exam but complete the project alternative, you will still receive your endorsed qualification. If you don’t sit for an exam or complete a final project, providing you have completed all the assignments you will be awarded a Certificate of Achievement.

Q. Do I have to sit for the exam at the Academy? 
A. No – whilst you are more than welcome to come to our location in Canterbury, U.K. and sit the exam in our classroom; the more popular option is to sit for the exam in your own location. You appoint an adjudicator to supervise the exam. Click here for more information on that process.

Q. Are there any exam fees?
A. There are no exam fees.  However, for some public examinations such as the ICB (Bookkeeping) and RHS courses exam fees do apply.  See course content for details.

Tutors

Q. Our tutors – who are they?
A.  We only employ tutors who have are currently active in their industry with at least 5 years of real-world experience.  Not only are they highly qualified but also experienced, knowledgeable, and professional- experts in their chosen fields from all parts of the world.

Q. Can I contact my tutor at any time?
A. Yes- you have unlimited access to tutors. We strongly encourage students to develop a dialogue with their Tutor. This is why we encourage students to submit their first assignment fairly quickly at the beginning of the course.
Every Academy student is assigned a tutor who supports you throughout your course and beyond. Your tutor is there to guide and facilitate your learning and provides as much or as little individual contact as you would like. When you submit your coursework the tutor will give you feedback that helps you develop your ideas and provides motivation. For those who do like to have interaction with other students, the ADL discussion forum connects you to students from all over the world.

Q. How do I contact my tutor?
A. You have direct contact with your tutor by email through the Online Classroom. Alternatively, you can write, fax, email, or phone the academy. Leave a message if your tutor isn’t available and they will phone, write or fax back; whatever suits you.

Q. If I don’t agree with / like my tutor can I request a change?
A. Yes – we try to accommodate and meet student’s needs and a change of tutor may be arranged.

Q. If I don’t understand a question or a lesson may I contact the tutor?
A. You may contact a tutor as often as you like. There is no additional charge or restriction on this service.  Contact can be made via the Student Zone, email, or by phone.

Q. Practical work – How is this done?
A. To find out more about this part of the course please visit the section on How Our Courses Work here.

A course designed for health therapists and all those working in health care that want or need to develop a deeper understanding of the human body processes and health maintenance.

Excerpt from the course

Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system encompasses all neural structures outside the brain and spinal cord: the sensory receptors, peripheral nerves and ganglia and efferent motor ending.

Sensory Receptors

Sensory receptors are part of a sensory neuron that responds to change in the environment and stimuli (environmental change and surroundings). These changes can present in the form of sound, pressure, chemical and other various forms. Sensory receptors and sensory neurons are designed to become aware of the electrical energy of the outside stimuli and respond to it. Once the response occurs, the sensory receptor will then relay it back to the nervous system via graded potentials that in turn trigger nerve impulses along the afferent fibres on the way to the CNS. When the stimulus ceases, the body ceases to notice this due to the receptor potential being deactivated.

Peripheral Nerves and Associated Ganglia

The PNS is divided into sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) division. The nerves that carry the impulses both towards the CNS are sensory/afferent and nerves that carry impulses away from the CNS are motor/efferent. Peripheral nerves are classified as cranial or spinal nerves depending on whether they arise from the brain or spinal cord. Ganglia are neuron cell bodies that are associated with nerve fibres in the PNS. Ganglia associated with afferent nerve fibres contain just the cell bodies of sensory neurons and are known as dorsal root ganglia.

Motor Endings

These are the motor endings that activate effectors by releasing neurotransmitters.

Cranial Nerves

There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves associated with the brain that pass through various regions of the skull. Cranial nerves are mixed nerves and have many different functions.

Sensory, Motor and Integrated Systems

In this section we look at how certain facets work together to carry out the basic functions of receiving sensory input, integrating, associating and storing information, and transmitting motor impulses that result in movement or secretion. It is through this functioning of systems that the body is able to communicate and relate with each other. It is necessary to have these in place so if we feel pain; we can react to alleviate the discomfort (for example, moving our hand away from a fire).

Sensation is being aware of a change in the environment, whether that environment is external or internal. Each type of sensation such as touch, pain, hearing and vision is called a sensory modality. Each specific sensory neuron carries information for that particular sensory modality. Neurons carrying information for touch can only transmit impulses for touch, not pain or hearing

General Senses

The general senses are made up of both somatic senses and visceral senses. Somatic senses are include tactile sensations which are touch, pressure and vibration, thermal sensations, warm and cold, pain sensations and proprioceptive sensations which is perception of both moving and non moving body parts. Visceral senses are information about internal organs.

The general or somatic senses begin in the receptors located in the skin (cutaneous) or embedded in muscles, tendons, joints and the inner ear (proprioceptive). Anaesthesia means without sensation and when it is used it blocks sensation within the body and between systems. The sensations from the somatic receptors then cross over to the opposite side in the spinal cord or brainstem before going to the thalamus.

There are two general pathways from sensory receptors to the cortex: posterior column pathway (discriminative touch and proprioception) and the spinothalamic (anterolateral) pathway (pain and temperature). This input is then integrated in the Central Nervous System which is then conveyed by the motor pathway to create a response.

The integrative functions include such activities as memory, sleep and wakefulness, and emotional responses (limbic system). These functions are the subject of many studies and we are just beginning to understand the physiology and interdependency of these systems with the rest of the body. Of course we are aware when we have little sleep it can affect our emotional responses as well as our memory.

The Process of Sensation

The process begins in a sensory receptor (either a specialised cell or in the dendrites of a sensory neuron). The sensory receptor responds to stimulus or a different change in the environment. Once the receptor is stimulated, they will convert energy into a graded potential. Importantly, each sensory receptor can only transduce its own particular type of stimulus.

Once the message is received, a particular region of the CNS will receive and integrate the sensory nerve impulse and then integrate it into the cerebral cortex. Different sensory impulses from each part of the body arrive in a particular region of the cerebral cortex, which interprets the sensation as coming from the stimulated sensory receptor. Therefore, you seem to hear with your ears, or feel pain in a certain bodily part, when in fact it is your brain telling you about the action as it responds to the message.

Adaption in Sensory Receptors:

Over a certain amount of time, the generator or receptor potential decreases if a stimulus is constantly maintained. The nerve impulses in the first order neuron therefore decrease and adapt to the ongoing stimulus and because of this, the perception of a stimulus may decrease or fade even though the stimulus does not change.

There are two different types of adapting receptors, rapidly adapting and slowly adapting. Rapidly adapting receptors adapt quickly to a change, such as touch, smell and pressure. Slowly adapting receptors continue to trigger nerve changes for the duration of the stimulus such as pain and body positions

Special Senses

Special senses include the sensory modalities of smell, taste, hearing, vision and balance. These are all necessary if we are to notice specific alterations and changes in our environments. These sensations all play a role in deepening the impact of our surroundings such as experiencing people, food, music, or a rose. And sensation can also have a great effect on our organ systems. Seeing a full buffet, especially when we are hungry, can start the whole digestive process. Hearing a beautiful song can relax our cardiovascular system by affecting the autonomic nervous system.

Sense of Smell: Olfaction

The receptors for olfaction are known as bipolar neurons. These neurons are stored in the nasal epithelium with olfactory glands. Axons from olfactory receptors form the olfactory nerves which relay messages to olfactory bulbs.  These then transmit to the limbic system and temporal and frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex

Sense of Taste: Gustation

The gustatory receptor cells are stored in the taste buds. Dissolved chemicals known as tastants stimulate gustatory receptors by either binding to receptors attached to G-proteins in the membrane, or passing through ion channels. Gustatory receptor cells then produce receptor potentials which cause the release of neurotransmitter. This will then stimulate nerve impulses in first order sensory neurons. Gustatory receptor cells trigger nerve impulses in cranial nerves VII, IX and I. Signals also pass to the medulla oblongata, thalamus and cerebral cortex (parietal lobe).

Vision

Refraction of light on the cornea and lens reflect an image on the retina, which focus an inverted image on the central fovea on the retina. Transduction of light energy into a receptor potential occurs in the outer segment of both rods and cones. Receptor potentials in rods and cones decrease the release of inhibitory transmitters, which induces graded potentials in bipolar and horizontal cells. Horizontal cells transmit inhibitory signals to bipolar cells, bipolar and amacrine cells transmit excitatory signals to ganglion cells, which depolarize and initiate nerve impulses. Ganglion nerve impulses are then conveyed into the optic nerve II fibre, to the thalamus and from there to the cerebral cortex

Hearing

Sound waves enter the external auditory canal, strike the eardrum and pass through the ossicle. They then pass through the vestibular membrane and scala tympani to increase pressure in the endolymph and vibrate the basilar membrane.  Hair bundles on the spiral organ are finally stimulated. These hair cells convert vibrations into receptor potentials which release a certain neurotransmitter which initiates nerve impulses into first order sensory neurons. Sensory axons which are located in the cochlear branch terminate in the medulla oblongata. They then pass to the inferior colliculus, thalamus and temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex

Equilibrium

There are two different types of equilibrium, static and dynamic. Static is the maintenance of the position of the body (in general the head), usually the steady state of the body without movement and dynamic equilibrium is the maintenance of the body position (head in general) in response to sudden movements such as turning, speeding up and slowing down.